Classificação de risco para transmissão de doenças imunopreveníveis em Minas Gerais, Brasil: dois anos desde o início da pandemia de COVID-19 / Transmission risk classification for vaccine-preventable diseases in Minas Gerais, Brazil: two years since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic

Resumo O objetivo é analisar a classificação de risco de transmissão de doenças imunopreveníveis nos 853 municípios de Minas Gerais (MG) após dois anos de início da pandemia de COVID-19. Estudo epidemiológico com dados secundários da cobertura vacinal e taxa de abandono de dez imunobiológicos recomendados para crianças menores de 2 anos, no ano de 2021, em MG. Em relação à taxa de abandono, este indicador foi avaliado somente para as vacinas multidoses. Após o cálculo de todos os indicadores, os municípios do estado foram classificados de acordo com o risco de transmissão de doenças imunopreveníveis em cinco estratos. Minas Gerais apresentou 80,9% dos municípios classificados como alto risco para transmissão de doenças imunopreveníveis. Em relação à homogeneidade das coberturas vacinais (HCV), os municípios de grande porte apresentaram a maior porcentagem de HCV classificada como muito baixa e 100% desses municípios foram classificados como de alto ou muito alto risco para transmissão de doenças imunopreveníveis, com significância estatística. A utilização de indicadores de imunização por município é efetiva para o delineamento do cenário de cada território e a proposição de políticas públicas em saúde visando o aumento das coberturas vacinais.

Abstract The scope of this study is to analyze the risk classification of transmission of vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) in the 853 municipalities in the state of Minas Gerais (MG) two years after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is an epidemiological study with secondary data on vaccination coverage and dropout rate of ten immuno-biologicals recommended for under 2-year-old children in 2021 in MG. With respect to the dropout rate, this indicator was only evaluated for the multidose vaccines. After calculating all the indicators, the municipalities of the state were classified according to the transmission risk of VPDs into five categories: very low, low, medium, high, and very high risk. Minas Gerais had 80.9% of municipalities classified as high transmission risk for VPDs. Regarding the homogeneity of vaccination coverage (HCV), large municipalities had the highest percentage of HCV classified as very low, and 100% of these municipalities were classified as high or very high risk for transmission of VPDs, with statistical significance. The use of immunization indicators by municipality is effective for the classification of the scenario of each territory and the proposal of public policies seeking to increase vaccination coverage.

Cobertura vacinal: uma análise comparativa entre os estados da região nordeste do Brasil com ênfase no estado do Maranhão / Vaccination coverage: a comparative analysis between the states of the northeast region of Brazil with emphasis on the state of Maranhão / Cobertura de vacunación: un análisis comparativo entre los estados de la región nordeste de Brasil con énfasis en el estado de Maranhão

Introdução: Devido à escassez de pesquisas voltadas para a situação da cobertura vacinal no Nordeste, sobretudo no Maranhão, apresenta-se a necessidade de realizar uma análise comparativa entre os estados da região nordeste do Brasil. Objetivo: Analisar a cobertura vacinal entre os estados na Região Nordeste do Brasil entre 2017 a 2021, por meio da análise de dados secundários provenientes de sistemas de informação em saúde. Metodologia: trata-se de estudo ecológico de série temporal, com uso de dados secundários provenientes de sistemas de informação em saúde. Foi realizado por meio da coleta de dados disponibilizados pelo TABNET do Departamento de Informação e Informática do SUS (DATASUS), referentes ao período entre 2017 e 2021, nos estados da Região Nordeste do Brasil. Resultados: No período de 2017 a 2021 a cobertura vacinal na Região Nordeste do Brasil foi de 64,48%, sendo uma das piores do país, perdendo apenas para Região Norte (63,30%). Cabe salientar que a média no país em todo o período analisado foi de 68,57%, estando bem abaixo do ideal (entorno de 90% a 95% a depender do imunizante). E entre os anos de 2019 a 2020 houve um declínio de 12,05% e em 2021 14,87% da cobertura vacinal na região nordeste do país. Conclusão: Este estudo permitiu realizar uma análise comparativa entre os estados da região nordeste do Brasil com ênfase no estado do maranhão quanto à cobertura vacinal, onde foi observado que, o estado do Maranhão apresenta umas das menores taxas de vacinação em comparação com outros estados da região nordeste.

Introduction: Due to the lack of research focused on the situation of vaccination coverage in the Northeast, especially in Maranhão, there is a need to carry out a comparative analysis between the states of the northeast region of Brazil. Objective: To analyze vaccination coverage among states in the Northeast Region of Brazil between 2017 and 2021, through the analysis of secondary data from health information systems. Methodology: this is an ecological time series study, using secondary data from health information systems. It was carried out by collecting data provided by the TABNET of the Department of Information and Informatics of the SUS (DATASUS), referring to the period between 2017 and 2021, in the states of the Northeast Region of Brazil. Results: In the period from 2017 to 2021, vaccination coverage in the Northeast Region of Brazil was 64.48%, being one of the worst in the country, second only to the North Region (63.30%). It should be noted that the average in the country throughout the analyzed period was 68.57%, well below the ideal (around 90% to 95% depending on the immunizer). And between the years 2019 to 2020 there was a decline of 12.05% and in 2021 14.87% of vaccination coverage in the northeast region of the country. Conclusion: This study made it possible to carry out a comparative analysis between the states of the northeast region of Brazil, with emphasis on the state of maranhão regarding vaccination coverage, where it was observed that the state of Maranhão has one of the lowest vaccination rates compared to other states in the region. northeast region.

Introducción: Debido a la falta de investigaciones centradas en la situación de las coberturas de vacunación en el Nordeste, especialmente en Maranhão, surge la necesidad de realizar un análisis comparativo entre los estados de la región Nordeste de Brasil. Objetivo: Analizar las coberturas de vacunación entre los estados de la Región Nordeste de Brasil entre 2017 y 2021, a través del análisis de datos secundarios de los sistemas de información en salud. Metodología: se trata de un estudio de series temporales ecológicas, utilizando datos secundarios de los sistemas de información en salud. Fue realizado a partir de la recopilación de datos facilitados por el TABNET del Departamento de Información e Informática del SUS (DATASUS), referentes al período comprendido entre 2017 y 2021, en los estados de la Región Nordeste de Brasil. Resultados: En el período de 2017 a 2021, la cobertura de vacunación en la Región Nordeste de Brasil fue del 64,48%, siendo una de las peores del país, superada solo por la Región Norte (63,30%). Cabe señalar que el promedio en el país durante todo el período analizado fue de 68,57%, muy por debajo del ideal (alrededor de 90% a 95% dependiendo del inmunizador). Y entre los años 2019 a 2020 hubo un descenso de 12,05% y en 2021 de 14,87% de las coberturas de vacunación en la región nororiental del país. región nordeste. PALABRAS CLAVE: Cobertura de Vacunación; Vacunas; Enfermedades Prevenibles por Vacunas.

Vaccination coverage of triple viral and poliomyelitis in Brazil, 2011-2021: temporal trend and spatial dependency / Cobertura vacinal da tríplice viral e poliomielite no Brasil, 2011-2021: tendência temporal e dependência espacial

ABSTRACT Objective: To analyze the coverage of MMR and polio vaccines, the temporal trend and spatial dependence, in children up to one year of age in Brazil, between 2011 and 2021. Methods: Ecological study with secondary data on vaccination coverage rates, made available by the National Immunization Program Information System. Trend analysis was carried out using the joinpoint method, according to geographic regions, estimating the annual percentage change (APC) and its respective confidence interval (95%CI). Choropleth maps of distribution by health region were constructed and, subsequently, the spatial dependence was verified using Moran's statistics. Results: Between 2011 and 2021, vaccination coverage declined in Brazil, both for MMR (APC: −6.4%; 95%CI −9.0; −3.8) and for poliomyelitis (APC: −4. 5%; 95%CI −5.5; −3.6). There was a decline in coverage of both vaccines in all geographic regions over the years of the study, except in the South and Midwest for the MMR vaccine. Since 2015, few health regions in the country have achieved adequate vaccination coverage (≥95.0% to <120.0%). The North and Northeast health regions showed low-low clusters in the univariate analysis for both immunobiological. Conclusions: It is urgent to consider studies like this one for the planning of more effective strategies for immunizing children, especially in areas with higher falls. In this way, barriers to access to immunization can be broken, given Brazil's heterogeneity, and access to reliable information that increases confidence in vaccine efficacy can be expanded.

RESUMO Objetivo: Analisar a cobertura das vacinas tríplice viral e contra poliomielite, a tendência temporal e a dependência espacial em crianças de até um ano no Brasil, entre 2011 e 2021. Métodos: Estudo ecológico com dados secundários das taxas de cobertura vacinal (CV), disponibilizadas pelo Sistema de Informação do Programa Nacional de Imunização. A análise de tendência ocorreu pelo método joinpoint, segundo regiões geográficas, estimando a variação percentual anual (APC) e seu respectivo intervalo de confiança (IC95%). Foram construídos mapas coropléticos de distribuição por região de saúde e, posteriormente, verificou-se a dependência espacial pela estatística de Moran. Resultados: Entre 2011 e 2021, as coberturas vacinais apresentaram queda no Brasil, tanto para tríplice viral (APC: −6,4%; IC95%: −9,0; −3,8) quanto para poliomielite (APC: −4,5%; IC95% −5,5; −3,6). Houve declínio da cobertura de ambas as vacinas em todas as regiões geográficas ao longo dos anos de estudo, exceto no Sul e no Centro-Oeste para a vacina tríplice viral. Desde 2015, poucas regionais de saúde do país atingiram a CV adequada (≥95 a <120%). As regiões sanitárias do Norte e do Nordeste apresentaram clusters do tipo baixo-baixo na análise univariada para ambos os imunobiológicos. Conclusão: É premente considerar estudos como este para o planejamento de estratégias mais eficazes à imunização de crianças, sobretudo em áreas de maior queda. Desse modo, pode-se romper as barreiras do acesso à imunização, dada a heterogeneidade brasileira, e ampliar o acesso a informações fidedignas que aumentem a confiança na eficácia vacinal.

Recommendations for modernizing infant vaccination schedules with combination vaccines in Colombia and Peru / Recomendaciones para modernizar los calendarios de vacunación infantil con vacunas combinadas en Colombia y Perú / Recomendações para modernizar os esquemas de vacinação infantil com vacinas combinadas na Colômbia e no Peru

ABSTRACT The objective of this article was to consider the vaccination challenges in Colombia and Peru and the role of pediatric combination vaccines in overcoming these challenges. Barriers to including new vaccines with more antigens remain apparent in parts of these countries, where vaccine-preventable diseases in infants continue to be a major problem. The challenges include the heterogeneity of vaccine coverage within each country and in neighboring countries, which can contribute to poor rates of vaccination coverage; the adverse impact of the inward migration of unvaccinated individuals, which has favored the re-emergence of vaccine-preventable diseases; vaccine shortages; and the impact of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic and the associated shifts in health care resources. To improve the coverage of pediatric vaccines in Colombia and Peru, it will be necessary to ensure the widespread integration into vaccine schedules of combination vaccines containing diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, inactivated poliovirus, Haemophilus influenzae type b and hepatitis B antigens with a three-dose primary series delivered at 2, 4 and 6 months of age followed by a booster at 18 months of age. Such vaccines play important roles in preventing diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis; eradicating polio; and providing boosting against H. influenzae type b.

RESUMEN El objetivo de este artículo es considerar los desafíos que se enfrentan en Colombia y Perú con respecto a la vacunación y el papel de las vacunas combinadas pediátricas para superar estos desafíos. Los obstáculos para incluir vacunas nuevas con más antígenos siguen siendo evidentes en algunos lugares de estos países, donde las enfermedades prevenibles por vacunación en menores de 1 año continúan siendo un grave problema. Entre los desafíos se incluye la heterogeneidad de la cobertura de vacunación en cada país y en los países vecinos, lo que puede contribuir con que se registren tasas bajas de cobertura de vacunación; el impacto adverso de la migración interna de personas no vacunadas, lo que ha favorecido la reaparición de enfermedades prevenibles por vacunación; la escasez de vacunas, y el impacto de la pandemia del coronavirus de tipo 2 causante del síndrome respiratorio agudo grave (SARS-CoV-2) y los consiguientes cambios en los recursos de atención médica. Para mejorar la cobertura de las vacunas pediátricas en Colombia y Perú será necesario integrar de manera generalizada en los calendarios de vacunación vacunas combinadas con antígenos de difteria, tétanos, tos ferina acelular, poliovirus inactivados, Haemophilus influenzae tipo b y hepatitis B con una serie primaria de tres dosis administradas a los 2, 4 y 6 meses de edad, seguida de un refuerzo a los 18 meses de edad. Esas vacunas desempeñan un papel esencial en la prevención de la difteria, el tétanos y la tos ferina; la erradicación de la polio; y el refuerzo contra H. influenzae tipo b.

RESUMO O objetivo deste artigo foi avaliar os desafios da vacinação na Colômbia e no Peru e o papel das vacinas pediátricas combinadas na superação de tais desafios. Os obstáculos para incluir novas vacinas com mais antígenos permanecem visíveis em partes desses países, onde doenças imunopreveníveis em lactentes continuam a ser um grande problema. Os desafios incluem a heterogeneidade da cobertura vacinal dentro de cada país e nos países vizinhos, o que pode contribuir para baixas taxas de cobertura vacinal; o impacto adverso da migração interna de pessoas não vacinadas, o que favoreceu o ressurgimento de doenças imunopreveníveis; a escassez de vacinas; e o impacto da pandemia de síndrome respiratória aguda grave do coronavírus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) e mudanças relacionadas nos recursos de atenção à saúde. Para melhorar a cobertura das vacinas pediátricas na Colômbia e no Peru, será necessário assegurar sua integração generalizada em esquemas de vacinas combinadas contendo antígenos de difteria, tétano, pertussis acelular, poliovírus inativado, Haemophilus influenzae tipo B e hepatite B, com uma série primária de três doses aplicadas aos 2, 4 e 6 meses de idade seguidas de um reforço aos 18 meses de idade. Tais vacinas desempenham papéis importantes na prevenção da difteria, tétano e coqueluche; na erradicação da poliomielite; e no reforço contra H. influenzae tipo b.

Adverse Events Related to COVID-19 Vaccines Reported in Pregnant Women in Brazil / Eventos adversos pós-vacina contra COVID-19 em gestantes no Brasil

Abstract Regulations for the vaccination of pregnant women in Brazil occurred in March 2021. Despite the absence of robust data in the literature on the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccinations in pregnant women, it is understood that the benefit-risk ratio tends to be favorable when considering the pandemic and the high burden of the disease. However, it is still important to monitor for Events Supposedly Attributable to Vaccination or Immunization (ESAVI) and to draw safety profiles of the different platforms used in pregnant and postpartum women. The present study aims to describe the main characteristics of ESAVIs related to COVID-19 vaccines occurring in pregnant women in the first months of the vaccination campaign in Brazil. During the evaluation period, 1,674 notifications of ESAVIs in pregnant women were recorded, and 582 notifications were included for the analysis. Of the 582 ESAVIs identified, 481 (82%) were classified as non-serious adverse events and 101 (17%) as serious adverse events. Ten deaths were identified, including one death which was considered to be causally related to the vaccine. The other nine maternal deaths had causality C, that is, without causal relationship with the vaccine, and most were due to complications inherent to pregnancy, such as pregnancy-specific hypertensive disorder (PSHD) in 4 cases and 3 due to COVID-19. Despite some limitations in our study, we believe it brings new insights into COVID-19 vaccines in this group and will add to the available evidence.

Resumo As determinações vacinação nas gestantes foram estabelecidas em março de 2021, no Brasil. Apesar da ausência de dados robustos na literatura da vacinação contra coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) nesse grupo, entende-se que a relação de benefício versus risco tende a ser favorável considerando a situação pandêmica e a elevada carga de doença, tendo justificado o uso dessas vacinas em ampla escala nas gestantes de todo o mundo. Entretanto, o monitoramento dos eventos adversos pós vacinação (EAPVs) torna-se ainda mais importante para traçar um perfil de segurança das diferentes plataformas nas gestantes e puérperas. O presente estudo tem como objetivo descrever as principais características dos EAPVs contra COVID-19 ocorridos nas gestantes nos primeiros meses de campanha da vacinação no Brasil. Foram identificadas 1.674 notificações em gestantes, com a inclusão de 582 EAPVs analisados. Dos 582 EAPVs identificados, 481 (82%) foram classificados como eventos adversos não-graves e 101 (17%) como eventos adversos graves, sendo 10 (9,9%) destes referentes aos óbitos. Apenas um caso de óbito materno teve relação causal com a vacinação comprovada (causalidade A1), e foi secundário à síndrome trombocitopênica trombótica (TTS) após a vacina AstraZeneca/Fiocruz. Os outros nove óbitos maternos tiveram causalidade C, ou seja, sem relação causal com a vacina, e a maioria por complicações inerentes à gravidez, como a doença hipertensiva específica da gestação (DHEG) e COVID-19. Apesar de algumas limitações em nosso estudo, acreditamos que ele traz dados importantes sobre as vacinas COVID-19 neste grupo aumentando as evidências disponíveis.

Analysis of the time series of pertussis in Brazil from 2010 to 2019 / Análise da série temporal da coqueluche no Brasil no período de 2010 a 2019

Abstract Objectives: to analyze a decade of spatio-temporal behavior of pertussis in Brazil and its epidemiological characteristics. Methods: ecological time series study of pertussis cases and deaths from the Notifable Diseases Information System in Brazil (2010-2019). The method of generalized linear analysis of Prais-Winsten and the Kernel analysis were used. Results: 32,849 cases were reported, of which 466 (1.42%) evolved to death, with a prevalence of 1.63/100,000 inhabitants and a mortality rate of 0.023/100,000 inhabitants. In the temporal analysis, the cyclical behavior of pertussis was evidenced, with trend variations in the period in 2014. Most cases occurred in children under 1 year of age (60.16%, p<0.01), sex female (55.28%, p=0.066) and white (48.42%, p=0.14). The largest share of deaths was in children aged <1 year (98.07, p<0.01), females (56.01%, p=0.066) and whites (43.78%, p=0.14). In the Kernel of prevalence, the South, Southeast and Northeast regions stood out with high density; while for mortality, the Southeast and Northeast stood out. Conclusions: the cyclical behavior of pertussis was observed, with a decreasing trend in recent years and the concentration of cases in children. This reinforces the importance of strengthening the population's immunization process.

Resumo Objetivos: analisar uma década do comportamento espaço-temporal da coqueluche no Brasil e as suas características epidemiológicas. Métodos: estudo ecológico de série temporal dos casos e óbitos por coqueluche do Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação no Brasil (2010-2019). Utilizou-se o método de análise linear generalizada de Prais-Winsten e a análise de Kernel. Resultados: notificaram-se 32.849 casos, desses 466 (1,42%) evoluíram para óbito, com prevalência de 1,63/100.000 habitantes e coeficiente de mortalidade de 0,023/100.000 habitantes. Na análise temporal, evidenciou-se o comportamento cíclico da coqueluche com variações de tendência no período em 2014. A maioria dos casos ocorreu em menores de 1 ano (60,16%, p<0,01), sexo feminino (55,28%, p=0,066) e brancos (48,42%, p=0,14). A maior parcela dos óbitos foi em crianças <1 ano (98,07, p<0,01), sexo feminino (56,01%, p=0,066) e brancos (43,78%, p=0,14). No Kernel da prevalência, destacaram-se as regiões Sul, Sudeste e Nordeste com alta densidade; enquanto para mortalidade, sobressaíram-se Sudeste e Nordeste. Conclusão: observou-se o comportamento cíclico da coqueluche, com tendência de decréscimo nos últimos anos e a concentração de casos no público infantil. O que reforça a importância de fortalecer o processo de imunização da população.

Process Evaluation of the Universal Immunization Program in Imphal-East District of Manipur: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Various strategies have been made to make vaccines universally available including to most hard-to-reach and vulnerable population. However, change in coverage level never reached upto expected level in spite of giving so much effort by the Govt. of India and World bodies. Therefore, there is the need to look beyond. Hence, the process evaluation of Universal Immunization Program (UIP) was conducted to evaluate the process of UIP using selected variables. Methods: A cross-sectional observation was done during the period from May 2017 to April 2020 among the 14 health?care facilities and 36 selected session sites, and interview was done to 48 health?care providers working at different levels, located in Imphal East district of Manipur. Both checklist and pretested semi-structured questioners were used for collection of data. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, proportion, and percentage were used. Results: Ice-lined refrigerator and Deep-freezer were found to be present in working condition in 11 (100%) centers. The use of vaccine carrier was found in all 36 (100%) centers. Way of vaccine administration was found to be correct in 26 (72.2%) centers. Availability of up?to?date microplan was found in 18 (78.3%) centers. Conclusions: Barriers in the UIP were not uniform throughout the villages and districts. Hence, area?specific measures need to be taken up for overcoming the barriers and challenges.

Barriers and facilitators to influenza vaccination observed by officers of national immunization programs in South America countries with contrasting coverage rates / Barreras y facilitadores de la vacuna contra la gripe observados por funcionarios de los programas nacionales de inmunización en países de Suramérica con niveles de cobertura contrastantes / Barreiras e facilitadores da vacinação contra influenza observados por funcionários dos programas nacionais de imunização em países Sul-Americanos com diferentes níveis de cobertura

Influenza is a severe, vaccine-preventable disease. Vaccination programs across Latin American countries show contrasting coverage rates, from 29% in Paraguay to 89% in Brazil. This study explores how national influenza vaccination programs in the chosen South American countries address vaccine confidence and convenience, as well as complacency toward the disease. Barriers and facilitators to influenza vaccination programs in their relation to vaccine hesitancy were observed by documentary analysis and interviews with 38 national immunization program officers in high- (Brazil and Chile) and low-performing (Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay) countries. Influenza vaccination policies, financing, purchasing, coordination, and accessibility are considered good or acceptable. National communication strategies focus on vaccine availability during campaigns. In Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay, anti-vaccine propaganda was mentioned as a problem. Programming and implementation face human resource shortages across most countries. Statistical information, health information systems, and nominal risk-group records are available, with limitations in Peru and Paraguay. Health promotion, supervision, monitoring, and evaluation are perceived as opportunities to address confidence and complacency. Influenza vaccination programs identify and act on most barriers and facilitators affecting influenza vaccine hesitancy via supply-side strategies which mostly address vaccine convenience. Confidence and complacency are insufficiently addressed, except for Uruguay. Programs have the opportunity to develop integral supply and demand-side approaches.

La gripe es una enfermedad grave, prevenible mediante vacunas con sus correspondientes programas en países latinoamericanos, informando sobre tasas contrastadas de cobertura, desde el 29% en Paraguay al 89% en Brasil. Este artículo investiga cómo los programas nacionales contra la gripe en países seleccionados de Suramérica abordan la confianza en la vacuna y su conveniencia, así como también la complacencia hacia la enfermedad. Las barreras y facilitadores del programa de vacunación de la gripe, en su relación con la vacilación hacia la vacuna, se observaron mediante análisis documental y entrevistas a 38 a cargo de los programas nacionales de inmunización en países con alto (Brasil y Chile) y bajo desempeño (Paraguay, Perú y Uruguay). Políticas de vacunación contra la gripe, financiamiento, compras coordinación y accesibilidad fueron consideradas como buenas o aceptables. Las estrategias nacionales de comunicación se centran en la disponibilidad de la vacuna durante las campañas. En Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay la propaganda antivacunas fue mencionada como un problema. La planificación e implementación enfrentan escasez de recursos humanos en la mayoría de países a través de la mayoría de países. Los sistemas de información en salud, estadísticas y registros nominales por grupos de riesgo se encuentran disponibles con limitaciones en Perú y Paraguay. La promoción de la salud, supervisión, monitoreo y evaluación son percibidos como oportunidades para abordar la confianza y complacencia. Los programas de vacunación contra la gripe actúan principalmente sobre las barreras y facilitadores que afectan la vacilación a vacunarse mediante estrategias del lado de la demanda, las cuales en su mayor parte van dirigidas a contrarestar la conveniencia. La confianza y complacencia son insuficientemente abordadas en todos los países, excepto en Uruguay. Los programas tienen la oportunidad de desarrollar estrategias que aborden tanto el lado de la oferta como de la demanda.

A influenza é uma doença grave, imunoprevenível, para a qual os programas de vacinação nos países latino-americanos apresentam taxas de cobertura contrastantes, desde 29% no Paraguai até 89% no Brasil. O artigo explora de que maneira os programas nacionais de influenza em países selecionados da América do Sul lidam com a confiança e a conveniência da vacina, assim como, a acomodação em relação à doença. As barreiras e facilitadores dos programas de vacinação contra influenza foram observados em relação à hesitação vacinal, através de análise documental e entrevistas com 38 autoridades de programas nacionais de imunização em países com desempenho alto (Brasil e Chile) e baixo (Paraguai, Peru e Uruguai). As políticas de vacinação contra influenza, financiamento da compra de vacinas, coordenação e acessibilidade são consideradas boas ou aceitáveis. As estratégias nacionais de comunicação estão concentradas na disponibilidade durante campanhas. No Chile, Paraguai e Uruguay, a propaganda antivacina foi mencionada enquanto problema. A programação e a implementação enfrentam escassez de recursos humanos na maioria dos países. Dados estatísticos, sistemas de informação em saúde e registros nominais de grupos de risco estão disponíveis, com limitações no Peru e no Paraguai. A promoção da saúde, supervisão, monitoramento e avaliação foram percebidas como oportunidades para tratar da confiança e da acomodação. Os programas de vacinação contra influenza identificam e agem sobre a maioria das barreiras e facilitadores que afetam a hesitação vacinal através de estratégias do lado da oferta, tratando principalmente da conveniência da vacina. A confiança e a acomodação não são tratadas de maneira suficiente, com exceção notável do Uruguai. Os programas têm a oportunidade de desenvolver abordagens que integram os lados da oferta e da procura.

Analysis of vaccination coverage during the COVID-19 pandemic in Vitória, Brazil / Análise da cobertura vacinal durante a pandemia de COVID-19 em Vitória, Brasil

INTRODUCTION: with the current situation of measles outbreak in Brazil and the sharp drop in immunization coverage nationwide, it is necessary to think about ways to intervene in the face of so many difficulties, since the expansion of immunization coverage is the most effective and safe for the control of infectious diseases OBJECTIVE: to analyze vaccine coverage of two National Campaigns during the COVID-19 pandemic in Vitória/ES. METHODS: a descriptive experience report on the implementation of an intervention plan to expand vaccination coverage of two National Vaccination Campaigns in 2020 in a Family Health Unit (FHU) during the Curricular Internship I (EC-I). It was based on the Situational Strategic Planning. Descriptive and bivariate statistical analyzes were performed RESULTS: there was an increase of 5.79 times in the vaccination coverage of the National Measles Vaccination Campaign 2020 in the territory, from 0.86% (vaccination coverage of the triple viral before the start of EC-I) to 4.98% at the end of EC-I (p = 0.438). When comparing the vaccination coverage of the National Multivaccination Campaign 2020 of immunobiologicals administered before and after the EC-I period at the FHU, we observed that there was a statistically significant difference (p = 0.0049). CONCLUSION: the proposed and implemented intervention plan had a positive outcome on the FHU, as the vaccination coverage of the two campaigns were expanded, despite all the challenges of the pandemic

INTRODUÇÃO: com a conjuntura atual do sarampo no Brasil, além da queda acentuada da cobertura vacinal em âmbito nacional, faz-se necessário pensar sobre as formas de intervir frente a tantos desafios, compreendendo que a ampliação da cobertura vacinal é a forma mais efetiva e segura para o controle de doenças infectocontagiosas. OBJETIVO: analisar a cobertura vacinal de duas Campanhas Nacionais durante a pandemia de COVID-19 em Vitória/ES. MÉTODO: relato de experiência descritivo, sobre a implementação de um plano de intervenção de ampliação de cobertura vacinal de duas Campanhas Nacionais de Vacinação em 2020 em uma Unidade de Saúde da Família (USF) durante a Disciplina de Estágio Curricular I (EC-I). O plano de intervenção foi alicerçado no Planejamento Estratégico Situacional. Análises estatísticas descritivas e bivariadas foram realizadas. RESULTADOS: houve um aumento de 5,79 vezes da cobertura vacinal da Campanha Nacional de Vacinação contra o Sarampo 2020, passando de 0,86% (em março de 2020) para 4,98% no final de outubro de 2020 (p=0,438). Ao comparar a cobertura da Campanha Nacional Multivacinação 2020 dos imunobiológicos administrados antes e após o plano de intervenção, observamos que houve uma diferença estatisticamente significante (p=0,0049). CONCLUSÃO: verificou-se um aumento nas coberturas vacinais da Campanha Nacional de Vacinação contra o Sarampo 2020 e da Campanha Nacional Multivacinação 2020. O plano de intervenção proposto e implementado surtiu efeito positivo na USF, pois, foi ampliado a cobertura vacinal das duas Campanhas, mesmo com todos os desafios da pandemia.

Inmunizaciones en niños, adolescentes y adultos inmunosuprimidos / Immunizations in children, adolescent and adult immunocompromised hosts

Los pacientes inmunosuprimidos presentan un riesgo mayor de infecciones, debido a sus disfunciones inmunes, producto de la actividad de su enfermedad y la terapia inmunosupresora. El uso de vacunas disminuye este riesgo, otorgando protección directa e indirecta, a través de la vacunación del paciente y sus contactos. Las vacunas inactivadas han demostrado un perfil de seguridad adecuado en estos pacientes, por lo que no están contraindicadas, aunque su respuesta inmune puede ser inadecuada. Las vacunas vivas atenuadas, formalmente contraindicadas, poseen una información creciente que permite evaluar su riesgo/beneficio de manera individual. Por este motivo es necesario procurar mantener el calendario de vacunas actualizado y complementado, evitando el retraso en esquemas de vacunación y poniéndolo al día lo antes posible, con estrategias basadas en el individuo. Para llevar a cabo esto, se debe conocer y considerar los intervalos entre las vacunas, los esquemas acelerados, la solicitud de vacunas especiales, las aprobaciones vigentes y, finalmente, sus contraindicaciones.

Immunecompromised patients are at higher risk of infections due to their immune dysfunction caused by ongoing disease processes and immunosuppressive therapy. Patient vaccination or vaccination of the people in contact with patients diminishes their risk of infection. Although the immune response of immunocompromised patients might be impaired, the use of inactivated vaccines is safe and it is not contraindicated in these patients. Formerly, live attenuated vaccines were contraindicated in immunecompromised patients, but recently more data supports their use when evaluating case by case the risks and benefits of their application. Thus, it is important to keep and up-to-date, taylor-based and enhanced vaccination schedule in these cases. For this, specialists need to be informed about the availability of regular and special vaccines, their current approvals, vaccine administration protocols under specific situations and vaccine contraindications.

Evaluation of factors, associated with defaulting routine immunization in children

Background: India was one of the first countries to adopt the World Health Organization's Expanded Programme of Immunization (EPI). The program started globally in 1974 and was initiated in India in 1978. Immunization is considered to be one of the most important cost-effective and a powerful public health intervention. Achieving maximum coverage, however, has been a challenge due to many reasons, including high rates of defaulters from the program. The term 'defaulter' is used to refer a child who misses the scheduled vaccinations for any reason. The objective of this study was to explore the reasons behind defaulting from the routine immunization program.Methods: A study was conducted in Bowring and Lady Curzon Hospital, Bangalore between January 2012 and December 2012. A total of sixty six children's' details were gathered from mothers of defaulted children. Children below 5 years attending OPD were included in the study. Children above 5 years and inpatients were excluded. Observations and review of relevant documents was done.Results: Of the 66 children, in our study, males were more than females. Children in the age group of 2 years to 5 years were 17(25%) as compared to those between 1 to 2 years. Mothers were more literate than fathers. Muslim children had the best immunization coverage. The main determinant of defaulting was lack of knowledge and awareness regarding immunization by the mothers (21/31%) followed by sickness in children (11/16%), causing them to default immunization schedulesConclusions: The main reason for defaulting from the immunization program was lack of awareness, regarding immunization by mothers in the community.

Pandemic and vaccine coverage: challenges of returning to schools / Pandemia e coberturas vacinais: desafios para o retorno às escolas

ABSTRACT Since March 2020, Brazil has faced the pandemic of the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19), which has severely modified the way in which the population lives and uses health services. As such, face-to-face attendance has dropped dramatically, even for child vaccination, due to measures of social distancing to mitigate the transmission of the virus. Several countries have recorded a substantial drop in vaccination coverage in children, especially of those under two years of age. In Brazil, administrative data indicate the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on this downward trend, which was already an important challenge of the National Immunization Program in recent years. Many children will be susceptible to immunopreventable diseases, which reinforces the need to assess the vaccine status of schoolchildren before returning to face-to-face classes.

RESUMO Desde março de 2020, o Brasil enfrenta a pandemia da doença do coronavírus 2019 (covid-19), que modificou intensamente o modo de viver da população e o uso dos serviços de saúde, nos quais o comparecimento presencial caiu drasticamente, inclusive para a vacinação infantil, devido às medidas de distanciamento social para mitigar a transmissão do vírus. Diversos países registraram queda substancial das coberturas vacinais em crianças, especialmente nas menores de dois anos de idade. No Brasil, dados administrativos apontam o impacto da pandemia de covid-19 no agravamento dessa queda, que já constituía um desafio importante do Programa Nacional de Imunizações nos últimos anos. Muitas crianças estarão suscetíveis a doenças imunopreveníveis, o que reforça a necessidade de avaliar a situação vacinal dos escolares antes do retorno às aulas presenciais.

Can physical activity influence the effect of the COVID-19 vaccine on older adults? / A atividade física pode influenciar no efeito da vacina para COVID-19 em idosos?

Abstract Studies have shown reductions in the immune response capacity with the aging process (immunosenescence). Lifestyle factors (physical activity and diet) have been investigated as possible adjuvants to improve the effect of vaccines on the immune system in the elderly. The aim of this opinion article is to analyze studies on physical activity and the effect of influenza vaccines in an attempt to suggest that their results can also be found in future studies on physical activity and vaccines against COVID-19. Considering the results of the studies analyzed, it could be suggested that the practice of physical activity improves responses to the influenza vaccine. Thus, it could be assumed that, when transferring these findings to COVID-19, the importance of regular physical activity in the specific elderly population becomes extremely relevant during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Resumo Estudos tem demonstrado reduções na capacidade de resposta imune com o processo do envelhecimento (imunosenescência). Fatores de estilo de vida (atividade física e dieta) começaram a ser investigados como possíveis coadjuvantes para melhorar o efeito das vacinas sobre o sistema imunológico em idosos. O objetivo deste artigo de opinião é analisar os estudos sobre atividade física e o efeito de vacinas contra a influenza, na tentativa de sugerir que os seus resultados possam ser encontrados, também, em futuras pesquisas sobre atividade física e vacinas contra o COVID-19. Considerando os resultados dos trabalhos analisados, pode-se sugerir que a prática de atividade física melhora as respostas à vacina contra a influenza. Desta forma, pode-se supor, que ao se fazer a transferência destes achados para o COVID-19, a importância da prática regular da atividade física na população específica de idosos passa a ser extremamente relevante durante a atual pandemia.

Economic Impact of a Vaccine Preventable Disease: A Scoping Review on Tuberculosis

@#Using pulmonary tuberculosis (pTB) as an example of a vaccine-preventable disease (VPD), we aimed to gather evidence on the economic impact of treating a case or managing an outbreak of a VPD. A scoping review was conducted. Online databases (MEDLINE and Google Scholar) were used to collate published studies from the year 2015 to 2019 on the management cost of one case or an outbreak of pTB. Keywords used were cost, treatment, outbreak, pulmonary tuberculosis, tuberculosis, economic, economic evaluation. A total of 29 studies were analysed. The costs of pTB treatment for individual patient were higher in high-income countries compared to middle-income and low-income countries. A case of pTB can result in household catastrophic health expenditure; while an outbreak can overwhelm the health system’s capacity, and disrupts the economy of a country. Therefore, accessibility of vaccines especially in low-income countries must be ensured. Also, vaccine-hesitant individuals must reconsider their stance on vaccination.

Study of immunization status of under: five children in relation to various demographic variables of their mothers

Background: Immunization remains an important public health intervention. On one side morbidity and mortality caused by vaccine-preventable diseases are still high in developing countries, on the other side immunization coverage is still low. Present study aims to assess immunization status of under-five children in relation to various demographic variables of their mothers.Methods: A total of 530 mothers with children under 5 years attending OPD, immunization clinic or admitted in paediatric ward were included in the study. Maternal demographic variables like age, religion, education, socio economic status, residence, parity and occupation were compared with immunization status of their children.Results: Most of mothers were housewives (73.77%), primary educated (33.58%), belonged to Hindu religion (47.54%), were of 21-30 years age group (52.64%), residing in urban areas (62.07%) and belonged to middle socio economic status (45.84%). Out of total 530 children 161 (30.37%) were completely immunized as compared to 21.32% who were unimmunized. Boys were marginally more unimmunized (37.32%) than girls (23.04%). Mothers' education, occupation, parity, religion, residence and socio-economic status significantly influenced immunization status of their children (p<0.05).Conclusions: Therefore, it is recommended that any strategy formulated to improve vaccination coverage in children of our country should focus to strengthen above mentioned weak links.

Acceptance of immunization by caregivers of children attending a tertiary health facility in Northwestern Nigeria

Introduction: Immunization against childhood diseases is well received in most developed countries; also, countries in the Caribbean and Latin America have attained over 90% immunization coverage unlike the most sub-Saharan African countries, such as Nigeria, which have a dismally low coverage. Our objective is, therefore, to determine the acceptance and willingness to complete immunization of children by caregivers seen in our health facility. Materials and Methods: This study was cross sectional involving caregivers attending the pediatric outpatient clinic of Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano, Nigeria, during the month of December 2017. This was questionnaire based and was administered by the researchers and trained assistants. It contained 20 questions consisting of both open- and close-ended questions. Results: All respondents were aware of the childhood immunization program and were willing to accept all vaccines for their children. They all believed that immunization was beneficial to their children; 126 (79.7%) respondents could correctly state the advantages of childhood immunization. However, only 18 (11.4%) of the respondents could correctly list the names of the childhood vaccines in the National Programme of Immunization. About 33.5% of respondents reported six visits as the total number of visits for childhood immunization; higher proportion of health workers and those with tertiary educational qualification could correctly list the names of the vaccines given to their children, and these observations were statistically significant (Chi-squared test = 27.786, df = 1, P = 0.000; Fisher's exact test = 12.421, P = 0.004). Conclusion: This study showed that most respondents were willing to accept and complete the immunization schedule; however, there was a significant knowledge gap, especially in listing the names of the vaccines and the expected number of immunization visits.

World Outbreak Trend of Infectious Diseases with Surveillance

The diverse infectious diseases can occur everywhere in the world, but high-risk infectious diseases should be monitored immediately after the occurrence, and be controlled not to spread to the public. Other highly contagious ones also should be screened with the surveillance system and made to be prevented from a serious effect on public health. The outbreak information, articles and news reports concerning global infectious disease outbreaks were collected from known web-based resources and deposited in Global Center for Infectious Diseases since 2016. The number of reports collected from various sources was analyzed on the respect of Blueprint priority diseases and vaccine-preventable diseases, and the characteristic outbreak trend was shown in the geographic distribution and the so-called socio-economic level of countries. The WHO R&D Blueprint priority diseases are being reported especially in the region of Africa and Asia. The vaccine-preventable and other infectious diseases also are reported continuously and world-widely. They threaten the safety of life continuously in public. Therefore, keeping close observation and strengthening infectious disease surveillance is needed, and more effort to expand the collecting resources to get more outbreak information is warranted.

La atención primaria de salud y la salud materno infantil

The Primary Health Care strategy introduced concepts which sought to revolutionize the way how to achieve Health for All at the global level. The Declaration of Alma Ata was a prelude to initiatives and global plans that sought compromise to States and society in achieving access to health equity. The Summit of Action for Children and the Meeting of the Millennium, which agreed health targets to achieve by year 2015 were inspired by the concepts included in Primary Health Care. While it is true that the purposes lying below the postulates in Alma Ata were not reached, there was remarkable progress in aspects related to the Mother and Child Health. The Selective Primary Healthcare inspired the so-called "Revolution for the Child Survival", which identified the main causes of the 15 million deaths in children recorded at the global level at the beginning of the Decade of the eighties of the last century, as well as the simple, low-cost interventions based on the evidence shown to be effective in the prevention of this "silent emergency" represented by the avoidable child deaths. Product of these interventions related to children health and the subsequent inclusion of interventions for the prevention of the 500 000 preventable maternal deaths recorded worldwide at the beginning of this century, has achieved remarkable progress at global level. Peru was one of the countries of the Americas that showed greater progress in reducing maternal and infant mortality. This article seeks to find an explanation of procedures and processes that allowed these achievements at the global level and in Peru, inspired by the principles proposed by the Primary Health Care strategy.

La estrategia Atención Primaria de la Salud introdujo conceptos que buscaron revolucionar la forma como se aspiraba lograr la Salud para Todos a nivel global. La declaración de Alma Ata fue un preludio de iniciativas y planes globales que buscaron comprometer a los Estados y a la sociedad en alcanzar el acceso a la salud con equidad. La Cumbre de Acción por la Infancia y la Reunión del Milenio, en la que se acordó las metas de salud a lograr el año 2015, estuvieron inspiradas en los conceptos incluidos en la Atención Primaria de la Salud. Si bien es cierto, los propósitos que subyacían a los postulados recogidos en Alma Ata no fueron alcanzados, sí hubo notables progresos en aspectos relacionados con la salud Materno Infantil. La Atención Primaria Selectiva de la Salud, inspiró la llamada ‘Revolución por la Supervivencia Infantil, que identificó las principales causas de las 15 millones muertes en niños, que se registraban a nivel global a inicios de la década de los años 80 del siglo pasado, así como las intervenciones sencillas, de bajo costo y basadas en la evidencia que habían mostrado ser efectivas en la prevención de esta ‘emergencia silenciosa que representaban las muertes infantiles evitables. Producto de estas intervenciones relacionadas con la salud infantil y la posterior inclusión de intervenciones para la prevención de las 500 000 muertes maternas evitables que registraba el mundo a inicios del presente siglo, se ha logrado notables progresos a nivel global en estos propósitos. El Perú fue uno de los países de las Américas que mostró mayores progresos en la reducción de la mortalidad materna y en la niñez. El presente artículo busca encontrar una explicación de las intervenciones y procesos que permitieron estos logros a nivel global y en el Perú, inspirados en los postulados propuestos por la estrategia de la Atención Primaria de la Salud.

Epidemiology of vaccine-preventable diseases in Japan: considerations for pre-travel advice for the 2019 Rugby World Cup and 2020 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games

Introduction@#In 2019 and 2020, Japan will host two international sporting events estimated to draw a combined 22 million visitors. Mass gatherings like these ones increase the risk of spread of infectious disease outbreaks and international transmission. Pre-travel advice reduces that risk. @*Methods@#To assist ministries of health and related organizations in developing pre-travel advice, we summarized national surveillance data in Japan (2000–2016, to the extent available) for rubella, invasive pneumococcal disease, measles, non-A and non-E viral hepatitis, hepatitis A, invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease, tetanus, typhoid fever, invasive meningococcal disease, Japanese encephalitis, influenza, varicella, mumps and pertussis by calculating descriptive statistics of reported cases and reviewing trends. (See Annex A for details of reviewed diseases.)@*Results@#Our findings showed notable incidences of rubella (1.78 per 100 000 person-years), influenza (243.5 cases per sentinel site), and mumps (40.1 per sentinel site); seasonal increases for influenza (November–May) and Japanese encephalitis (August–November); and a geographical concentration of Japanese encephalitis in western Japan. Measles cases decreased from 11 013 in 2008 to 35 in 2015, but outbreaks (n = 165 cases) associated with importation occurred in 2016. Though invasive meningococcal disease incidence was only 0.03 per 100 000, international transmission occurred at a mass gathering in Japan in 2015.@*Discussion@#Ministries of health and related organizations should use these findings to develop targeted pre-travel advice for travellers to the 2019 Rugby World Cup and the 2020 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games, especially for mumps, measles, rubella, influenza, and meningitis. Travellers with increased exposure risk should also be advised about hepatitis A and Japanese encephalitis.

Investigation of a measles outbreak in Cordillera, northern Philippines, 2013

Introduction: Measles is a highly infectious viral illness that remains one of the leading causes of death among children worldwide. In the Philippines, decreasing routine vaccination coverage from 2007 to 2011 led to local measles outbreaks. A team investigated a measles outbreak reported in Cordillera of the Philippines in May 2013. Methods: Measles case data with symptom onset from 2 February to 27 May 2013 were obtained from official sources and verified on site. Data included age, sex, residential address, signs and symptoms and vaccination status. Active case-findings were also conducted for contacts of these cases. The living environments of the cases were investigated. A survey was conducted with the cases and caregivers to understand their knowledge and attitudes about measles. Results: There were 50 measles cases identified with an age range from six months to 32 years (median: 16 years). Thirty-two were male (64%). Twenty (40%) were hospitalized with one death. Thirty-two (64%) cases were laboratory confirmed, and 36 (72%) received a single dose of measles vaccine. Overcrowded living environments were observed among many cases. The majority of respondents (46/48, 96%) knew about measles, but there were misconceptions about the cause of measles and how it can be prevented and managed. Conclusion: This measles outbreak occurred in an area with low immunization coverage. Achieving 95% measles immunization coverage and strengthening routine immunization strategies to address high-risk populations are recommended. Also, we recommend health education campaigns to include components that address misconceptions about measles.